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A glass ceiling is a term used to describe "the unseen, yet unbreakable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements."〔Federal Glass Ceiling Commission. (''Solid Investments: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital''. ) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, November 1995, p. 4.〕 Initially, and sometimes still today, the metaphor was applied by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high achieving women.〔Federal Glass Ceiling Commission. (''Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital.'' ) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, March 1995, p. iii.〕 In the US the concept is sometimes extended to refer to obstacles hindering the advancement of minority men, as well as women.〔 ==Definition== David Cotter and colleagues defined four distinctive characteristics that must be met to conclude that a ''glass ceiling'' exists. A glass ceiling inequality represents: #"A gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee." #"A gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome." #"A gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, not merely the proportions of each gender or race currently at those higher levels." #"A gender or racial inequality that increases over the course of a career." Cotter and his colleagues found that glass ceilings are correlated strongly with gender. Both white and African-American women face a glass ceiling in the course of their careers. In contrast, the researchers did not find evidence of a glass ceiling for African-American men.〔Cotter, David A., Joan M. Hermsen, Seth Ovadia, and Reece Vanneman (2001). (''The glass ceiling effect''. ) Social Forces, Vol. 80 No. 2, pp. 655–81.〕 The glass ceiling metaphor has often been used to describe invisible barriers ("glass") through which women can see elite positions but cannot reach them ("ceiling").〔 *Davies-Netzley, Sally A. (1998). (''Women above the Glass Ceiling: Perceptions on Corporate Mobility and Strategies for Success'' ) Gender and Society, Vol. 12, No. 3, p. 340, .〕 These barriers prevent large numbers of women and ethnic minorities from obtaining and securing the most powerful, prestigious, and highest-grossing jobs in the workforce.〔Hesse-Biber and Carter 2005, p. 77.〕 Moreover, this effect may make women feel they are not worthy to fill high-ranking positions or as if their bosses do not take them seriously or see them as potential candidates for advancement.〔Nevill, Ginny, Alice Pennicott, Joanna Williams, and Ann Worrall. ''Women in the Workforce: The Effect of Demographic Changes in the 1990s''. London: The Industrial Society, 1990, p. 39, ISBN 978-0-85290-655-2.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Glass ceiling」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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